Managerial Grid
Xxxx
xxx
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(1.9)
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Managerial
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(9.9)
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Management
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Xxxx
xxx
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Thoughtful attention to needs of people for
satisfying relationship leads organization atmosphere and work tempo
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Work accomplishment is from committed people interdependence
through a common stake in organization purpose leads to relationship of trust
and respect
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Path- Goal Model of
Leadership
Like the other situational contingency
leadership approaches, the path-goal model attempts to predict leadership
effectiveness in deferent situation.
According to this model, leaders are
effective because of their positive impact on followers’ motivation, ability to
perform and satisfaction. It is called path-goal because if focuses on how the
leader influences the followers, perceptions of work goals, self-development
goals and paths of goal attainment.
The foundation of path-goal theory is the
expectancy motivation theory which states that an individual’s attitude, job
satisfaction, behaviour and job effort can be predicted from the followings:
(a)
The
degree to which the job or behaviour is seen as leading to various outcomes (expiatory).
(b)
The
performances for those outcomes (valances). Thus it is proposed that individuals
are satisfied with their jobs if they believe it leads to desirable outcomes.
The implication of these assumptions for leaders is that subordinates are
motivated by the leader’s style or behaviour to the extent that it influences
their goals achievement.
Path-goal
theory asserts that leaders will be effective by making rewards available to
the subordinate’s accomplishment of specific goal.
It is
argued that an important part of leader’s duty is to result in goal attainment.
This activity is referred to as Path clarification.
The early path-goal work leaders to the
development of a complex theory involving four specific types of leader
behaviour, which include directive, supportive and achievement leader.
The direct leader treats subordinates know
what is expected of them, the supportive leader consult with subordinates and
use their suggestions and ideas before reaching a decision. The achievement
leader set goals, expects the subordinates to perform at the highest level and
continually seek improvement in their performance.
The Main Path-Goal Propositions:
The two
important propositions are as follow:
Leader
behaviour is acceptable and satisfying to extent the subordinates perceive such
behaviour as immediate sources of satisfaction or as instrumental to future satisfaction.
(1)
Leader behaviour will be motivated to the
extent that makes satisfaction of subordinates’ needs contingent
upon effective performance and complements the environment in which the
subordinates work by providing the guidance, clarity of directive and rewards
necessary for effective performance.
(2) The
theories further state that a leader should increase the number of types of
rewards available to the subordinates. In addition, leader should provide
guidance and counseling to clarity the means in which these rewards can be
obtained.
LEADERSHIP IN ORGANISATION
Some
countries of the world are bless with abundant resources both human and
materials which Nigeria
is inclusive, but acute problem facing them is poor leadership. These countries
need effective and able leaders, who can plan, direct, organize and control
these abundant resources.
Leadership may be defined in terns of the totality of functions
performance by executives as individuals and as a group. Leadership can be generally defined as a
process of influence other people to achieve a given goal. It is the
willingness of people to follow that makes a person as providing a means of achieving
their leaders, wants and other needs for example, Andrew is a taxi driver
working for “Saga” Company, he is always unfriendly and uncompromising to
passengers.
His boss notices his rude behaviour and makes
an official report against him. Andrew was called and cautioned. Several months
later, Andrew mellows down his attitude towards his passengers. Although, still
not cheerful, he is tolerable. Asked by a friend why he was changed, he
Replied, “I had a good talk with my boss. From
the above analysis, Andrew needs relationship. His superior heard about his misbehavior
and takes remedial steps. Andrew’s conversation with his boss led to a change
in his work behaviour. He was influence by his boss to achieve, which an
important objective, which is providing an acceptable service to passengers.
Reasons Why People Comply with their Leaders
Leadership would have not been possible if people fall to comply with
orders, directives, and suggestions of their leaders. An act of leadership is
not complete until the person or you are trying to lead actually carry out your
order or suggestions.
For example, if you are trying to lead your subordinates
to sweep a classroom, your best proof of your leadership is a clean classroom.
People comply with leaders because of the
following:
(1)
Psychological contract
(2)
Early cultural conditioning
(3) Satisfaction of dependency needs
(4) Fear of consequences of non-compliance
The Psychological
Contract:
People in an organisasion will definitely obey
the leader because of unwritten contract between themselves and the
organization. If for example, your company pays you your salary on time,
provides you with a pleasant working conditions, give you good opportunities to
socialize with other people, you will be willing to comply with many favours
the company may seek form you in return. Among these favours are to work hard
and increase productivity, compete most assignment on time and be punctual to
work. As long as the request of organisasion seems like a reasonable bargain,
you will probably comply.
Early Cultural
Conditioning:
Most, if
not all culture people are taught early in life to obey constitution authority,
Perhaps more so in the past than today,
people in position of authority, such as the teachers, clergy, judges,
policemen etc are obeyed out respect to their position.
People
vary greatly in their automatic acceptance of authority. Some individuals are
pathologically opposed to accepting authority; others are unnecessarily indifferent
to the acceptance of authority. Nevertheless, most people generally accept what
they perceive as legitimate authority.
The
concept of legitimate verse illegitimate authority is similar to the
psychological contact. People in general obey the authority they perceive as
being rational and reasonable.
Satisfaction of
Dependency Needs:
Another
normal need is dependency, the desire to have another individual takes
responsibility for you and help you in solving your problems. In, personal life
we depend on key people such as spouses or parents to satisfy some of our vital
needs. Most people find it comforting to depend on the advice and wisdom of a
superior. We also find it satisfying to have rules to govern many aspect of our
behaviour. These leaders that help us to
satisfy our needs we are likely to obey.
Fear of the
Consequences of Non-compliance:
Many
people obey their leaders because they think that, if they fail to obey,
something negative will happen on them. People will obey a leader when he or
she is in control of powerful negative sanction.
One may argue, fear of the consequences of
non-compliances one of the reasons people comply with their leaders: Is armed
robber a leader? Theoretically, the use of extreme negative sanctions is act of
leadership, but it is shortlived. The armed robber may end up in jail or being
killed. The organization leads people through coercion will capable
subordinates for along time.
Leadership Roles in Groups
The leadership of a group exerts some influence
over the numbers of a group. In the formal group, the leader can legitimately
exercise his power, i.e. the leader can reward or punish his members who do not
comply with his directives, orders etc.
The leadership role is important factor in both formal and informal
groups. The person who becomes an informal group leader is generally viewed as
respected and prestigious members who:
(a)
Helps the group in achieving is goals.
(b)
Aids his members in satisfying their needs.
(c)
Embodies the value, motives and aspirations of the group membership.
(d)
Is the choice of group member to represent their viewpoint when
interacting with other group leader
(e)
Is a facilitator of group conflict, an initiator of group actions and is
concerned with maintain the group as a functioning unit.
A leader is not able to maintain the respect
and prestige as perceive by the group members may be replace by another leader
who is more prestigious and worthy of the respect of the group. To remain as a
leader in any group a person must have the necessary knowledge and skill needed
to help guide the group towards task accomplishment.
The Different Between Managers and Leaders
The idea that leadership is the same as
management is not completely valid. A manager in a formal organization who can
also be a leader is responsible and entrusted to carry out certain functions
which include:
Planning, organizing, controlling
etc. Leaders exist in formal
organisasion. Informal leaders are not formal managers and cannot perfume
managerial functions which are required by the organisasion.
Some of the deference between managers and
leaders are as follows:
(1) Leadership inevitably requires power
to influence the thoughts and cations of other people, while manager may use
both power and authority to make subordinate comply.
(2) All managers are leaders but not all
leaders are managers but leaders informal groups can be managers.
(3) Management consist of the rational
assessment of a situation and the systematic selection of strategies to achieve
these goals, the rational design of organisasion, direction and control of the achieves
required of attain the selects purposes. In other words, a manager is a problem
solver. Leadership involves practical effort in directing affairs and in
fulfilling organisational tasks. Leadership is really managing work other
people do.
(4) It takes neither genus nor heroism
to be a manager but rather persistence, tough-mindedness, hard work,
intelligence, tolerant and above all good will.
(5) Attitude towards goals: Managers
tent to adopt impersonal if not passive attitude towards goals. Managerial
goals arise out of necessary rather than desire. Leader adopts a personal and
active attitude towards goals. They are
active, shaping ideas instead of responding to them. Managerial goals are out
of necessity.
(6) Managers tent to see work as
enabling process involving some combination of people and ideas, interaction to
establish strategies and make decisions.
They negotiate and bargain on one hand and use reward and punishment on
the other. Leaders work in the position; develop fresh approaches to long
standing problems. Leaders will punishment instead of using motivation.
(7) Leaders work from high-risk
positions, especially where opportunity and reward appear high. Managers
instruct for surreal dominates their
needs for risk. The same cannot apply to leaders.
Cultivate Behaviour of Leaders
The relationship between leaders and followers
can be improved greatly id a leader cultivates certain behaviour. This
behaviour may include:
(a) Objectivity
(b) Empathy
(c) Awareness
(d) Self-knowledge
Objectivity:
Leaders should try to observe and trace the causes of events without sentiment.
Even if they depend greatly on their subordinates and sometimes become
emotionally attached to their necessary to be objective in evaluating their
performance. Whenever possible, take necessary steps to correct bad behaviours and encourage good ones. Pay less
emphasis on emotion and empathy. A neat balance between objectivity and empathy
is very hard to achieve, but plays its own roles effective leadership.
To cultivate objectivity by teaching one’s self
to analyse before embarking on any action, a leader a strong determination.
With a strong willpower leader may overcome
wrong judgment, anger and undue exuberance.
Empathy:
According to Webster empathy is defined as the imaginative projection of one’s
consciousness into another being.
Empathy can be viewed as the ability to share
another person’s feelings. Leaders without empathy often their subordinates
have the same values, objective and ambition, like them. This wrong assumption
often makes leaders to provide their subordinates with benefits they cherish
themselves. A leader must to understand the feelings, values and attitudes of
their followers both at working place and outside their work.
Awareness:
Most leaders seem to be more concerned with their routine jobs than to
appreciate what they can do to be better managers and leaders. If managers can
be aware of the factors that make them to be effective leaders and the way in
which styles are contingent on a range of situational consideration, they ca be
better managers and leaders.
The theories and researches of leadership are very
large that no leader can comprehend them. But there is no reason why any leader
should not understand the essentials of motivation and leadership theories.
And also a leader should be able to
apply these theories to practice.
Self-knowledge: Some leaders are not wearing of why they behave as they do and also
what they do to attract some response, lack of response and hostility from
other people. It is not possible to be objective without self-knowledge. The
truth of the matter is what some people offend others unknowingly by their
habitual attitude, words or actions. This may be intentional or unintentional.
Leaders and managers should know the effects of their attitudes and actions on
other, so they can correct those that show negative responses. This will enable
them to cultivate favorable self-knowledge about their environment.
The Basis for Power and Authority of a Leader
Power includes all the personal and positional
attributes that enable a leader to influence his followers and authority is the
power a person has by virtue of his superior position. Followers normally
accord authority to managers and leaders who occupy higher hierarchical
positions. This authority is a certain extent unrelated to the particular
person who occupies the position. Authority would arise even though the
occupant of the position does not have the personal and motivate the subordinates
is largely base on the perceived power of the leader. Then power a leader may
possess as identified by French and Raven are as follows:
(a)
Coercive power
(b)
Expert power
(c)
Referent power
(d)
Reward power
(e)
Legitimate power
Coercive Power: This is the type of power is base on fear. The subordinate in this case,
are afraid the failing to comply with the other request from the leaders may
result in some form of punishment, a reprimand and social ostracism from their
group. Base on this, they obey and comply with their leaders.
Expert Power:
This power is base on a special skill, expertise and knowledge of a leader. A
leader is able to lead because the followers perceive him as having skill and
expertise which supersede their own.
Referent Power: This type of power is base on a
attractiveness and appeal. A leader who is admired because of certain qualities
he has, possess referent power. This type of power is often known as charisma.
Reward Power:
This is related to expectation of receiving praise recognition etc for
compliance with leader’s request.
Generally, power includes the personal and
positional attributes which form the basis for influence other persons. The
ability to influence, persuade and motivate followers is base is largely on the
perceived power of that person.
Authority
The authority is power resulting from position
an individual is occupying. According to Max Weber, authority and bureaucratic organisasion
are the most ration way of carrying out imperative control over human race. In
this case, a distribution should be made between the positions that make up the
structure of authority.
Authority exists regardless of a
person who occupies the position.
Organisasion of a position follows
the principles of hierarchy in which people at lower hierarchy are subjected to
the control of people on higher hierarchy.
Delegation of Authority
Another issue which mangers should consider
when designing an organisasion structure is delegation of authority, which
means decentralisation of authority. This means giving the manager or leader
right to make decision without getting approval from higher office.
The following facts are partially agreed upon
why organization should be decentralised:
(1) Some people assume that it encourage
development of professional managers. Since decision making authority is
invited on the manager at lower hierarchy.
(2) It helps the mangers to adapt and
improve themselves if they are to grow I the company.
(3) It motivates the managers, since it
involves them in making certain decisions that affect them.
Principle of Delegation
Unless these principles are carefully observed
delegation may be infective, and may result in the failure of organization,
which may seriously impede the managerial process.
These are as follows:
(1) Principle of Delegation By
Result Expected:
Since
authority is intended to furnish manager with tools to accomplish
organizational objectives,
the authority delegation to individual managers should be adequate to enable
them accomplish result expected.
Delegation by result expected implies that goals have been set and plan made,
and these are communicated to the subordinates. Base on these subordinates will
then work towards accomplishing these goals.
(2)
Principle of Functional Definition:
To develop an organization, departments and
activities must be grouped in such a way to enable the mangers of each
department have authority to co-ordinate their activities. The principles state
that, the more a person has a clear definition of results expected activities
to be undertaken, the more adequately the individual can work hard towards
goals accomplishment of the given organisasion.
(3)Scalar Principle: This refers to chain of
direct authority relationship from superior to subordinate throughout the
organization. The clearer the line of authority from the top manger to lowest
subordinate, the more effective will decision making and organisational
communication will be.
(4) Principle of Unity of Command: The more
completely an individual has a reporting relationship to a single superior, the
less the problem of conflict in giving instruction and greater is the feeling of
personal responsibility for the results.
The
principle states, it is not possible for a subordinate to take order from two
or more superior as the same time. There are practical difficulties in serving
two masters at the same time.
Span of Control
This
refers to as number of persons a leader or manager can control at a giving
time. The organisational structure is designed in a way to make co-ordination
of activities possible. How many persons can be effectively controlled by a
leader? This is a tough question facing business managers. Most who led people
of Israel out of Egypt was busy
from morning to night counseling his people. Suggestion was given to him, to
appoint rules to help him, in this regard.
According to lan Hamiton, a British Heneral a span of control should
range from three to six persons. He conluded that three person could keep an
officer busy while six would probably keep an office very business.
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